Friday, 27 May 2011

Islam Watch - "Mut’ah—Islam's Law of Desire…!" by Lennard James

Mut’ahIslam's
Law of Desire…!

"Religion: Relationship of human
beings to God or the Gods or to whatever they consider sacred
or, in some cases, merely supernatural.
"
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia



Muhammad's statements in the hadiths express extreme ambivalence
about women (Walther):

"I have left behind no temptation more harmful to my community
than that which women represent for men."

"The whole world is delightful, but the most delightful thing
in it, is a virtuous woman."

"If a man and a woman are alone in one place, the third person
present is the devil (shai’tan)."

"I stood at the gates of Paradise, most of those who entered
there were poor, I stood at the gates of Hell, most of those who
went in there, were women".

If the veil is to protect women, then Mut’ah (temporary
marriage in Islam) has surprisingly many contradictions. In Iran,
fleeting 'temporary marriages' are endorsed by the clergy. One
particular respect, in which Shia'ite and Sunni branches of Islam
differ, which is in the institution of temporary marriage:

"A major difference in both the customs is that the Shia’ites
practice of Mut’ah, or temporary marriage is an ingenious
expedient created to resolve the tensions of momentary lusts
without resorting to either dishonor or have sexual repressions.
Mut'ah may last only for a few hours, but it legitimizes any
offspring from this union. Sunnis disavow such a concept, even
though their treatment of women is considerably less generous than
that of the Shia’ites when it comes to family inheritance and
participation in religious rituals" (Occhiogrosso).

These
are marriages in the name only; they are not least bound to Muslim
men, because they have the right to deny their responsibilities in
case any child is born of this temporary liaison… This controversial
law allows Muslim men to fornicate, so long as they register their
intentions with a religious Shari’ah court, where they fill out a
form specifying how long they intend to 'enjoy' their
partner/partners.

Dr. Mahran Doltchahi, a professor at the Free University in
Tehran, comments: "The enjoyment of marriage is nothing but a
legal cover for prostitution. How can anyone in the world claim that
a marriage for 10 minutes is a legal act?
"

The real victims of the Laws of Desire are women from
deprived socio-economic backgrounds. Desires under a thin red veil
are the very excuse of fornication and prostitution under the legal
cover in Islam. Jan Goodwin, in "Price of Honour", provides a
colourful cultural vignette of Mut’ah:

“You probably had your chador on the wrong way around' my
friend explained. 'That's one of the signals women use if they're
looking for sigheh”. ‘Sigheh or Mut’ah’ is an
agreement between a man and a woman which is sanctioned by a
cleric and can last as little as a few minutes or as long as
ninety-nine years…

It is usually, where the man pays the woman an agreed sum of
money in exchange for a temporary marriage. The usual motives is
sex, but in some temporary marriages, where the agreement s are
agreed upon for other purposes. When sex is the motive the
transactions differ from prostitution, in that the agreed couple
has to go before a cleric to record their erstwhile contract and
in Iran, any children born of the union are legitimate. Otherwise,
the Mut’ah is free of the responsibilities of marriage: the couple
can make any agreements they like regarding how much time they
will spend together in this agreement. It has also, as to how much
money will be involved and what services, whether sexual or
nonsexual relationship each will provide. The Shia’ites believes
that Muhammad approved of Mut’ah. The Sunnis being the majority
branch in Islam don't agree to this Law. Even in Shia’ite Iran,
Mut’ah had fallen from favor until Rafsanjani encouraged it after
the Iran-Iraq War which ended in 1988. In a 1990 sermon, he argued
that the war had left a lot of young widows, many of them without
hope of any remarriages. Such women he said needed both material
support and sexual satisfactions. At the same time, plenty of
young men who couldn't afford to set up house for a bride were
postponing their marriages. Sexual tensions needed a healthy
release he said, and since Mut’ah existed for that purpose within
Islam, why not use it? His remarks sparked a heated debate amongst
Iranian women, some of whom bitterly opposed these practices as
exploitative. They argued that, the state should provide for these
war widows adequately, so that they don't have to sell their
bodies in Mut’ah. But others spoke out in its favor. Mut’ah, they
said wasn't just a matter of money. Widows and divorcees had
sexual needs and a desire for male company, and the "husband" was
a welcomed male presence for the children in their homes. Iran's
satirical weekly magazine the Golagha, ran a cartoon lampooning
the likely effects of Rafsanjani's argument. It showed two desks
for marriage licenses, one for Mut’ah and one for permanent
wedlock. The clerk at the permanent desk had no customers; while
the queue for Mut’ah stretched out the door." (Goodwin)

Shahla Haeri, author of the "Law of Desire", says ‘conservative
clergy are behind a campaign to preserve enjoyment of marriages
’.
She cites one of Iran's leading imams, Jafar El Sadek, as declaring
'partners in enjoyment in marriages are especially blessed. When
they bathe, every drop of water turns into seventy angels who will
testify on their behalf on the Day of Judgment
'…!

"Khomeini was alone among senior clergies in condemning the law
and the hypocrisy of those who were in favour of it. This is still
remembered on the streets of Tehran, there is the Persian story he
once quoted on television "A religious leader said to a prostitute
'You are drunk and every moment you go and visit someone
different'. She replied 'Oh Sheik! What you say about me is
correct. But what you pretend about yourself is that true too?"

"The Shia’ites doctrines, projects a double image of women
through the contractual laws of temporary and permanent marriages.
We may ask here, ‘What is a woman from a Shia'ite perspective?’ Is
she a precious commodity that may be owned, bought, or leased? Or
is she a person created like a man who can be in charge of her own
life, negotiate contracts, control their outcome, and exchange
gifts? Is she a decision-making adult or a minor?

Looking at the women's status developmentally, and through a
discussion of the different forms of Shia'ites marriage contracts,
it is shown that at any given points in her life cycle a Shia'ite
Muslim woman may be perceived to be all or some of the above
simultaneously... Such legal ambivalence is reflected in a variety
of vastly popular binary images of women. Such images of women as
controller/controlled, seducer/ seduced, cunning/gullible, and
pious/adulterous; all have a wide currency in the Persian-Islamic
literatures. In one of the most fascinating literary treasures of
the Middle East, the tales of ‘A Thousand and One Nights’ where,
the superimposition of many of these binary images is elegantly
portrayed. Indeed, the whole story is based on one such dominant
binary opposition, that of order/disorder...

Through the cunning of an adulterous queen, society today is
brought to the brink of disorder! But the mediation of another
woman restores order to society and a sense to the king. The
underlying ambivalence towards women is not reflected just in
literature and folklore alone... The Quran itself conveys this
ambivalence towards women as well. In all Holy Books, women are
sometimes depicted as objects to be treated as kindly or harshly
and at other times as persons created of the same material as men
(compare the Surahs of Women 34 and the Cow 223). Many hadiths and
sayings of the Prophet, the imams, and other Muslim leaders
further underscore this ambivalence. For example, the Prophet
Muhammad is frequently quoted as having said: 'Women are the
trappings of Satan' (cited in Burhan-i Qat' 1951 63, 2:681; Razi
1963 68, 350). In another context, however, he is alleged to have
stated: 'From your world I do not like anything but women and
perfume' (quoted by Ayatollah Mishkini 1974, 118). Such
ambivalence finds its resonance in the following popular adage in
Iran: 'Women are a pain, bala. May no house be without it?'

A Mut’ah woman is especially a target of cultural and legal
ambivalence... Personally, she might be more mature and
experienced than other women (because she has married at least
once and been divorced), and legally, she is freer than married
than a virgin women to negotiate on her own behalf or choose her
male partner(s), and exercise her own decision-making powers… She
is her own person as it were. A divorced woman's status is the
closest that a Shia'ite Muslim woman can come to having legal
autonomy. Autonomy, however is not a trait socially approved of
for women in Iran? Although some men may welcome it and even be
fascinated by the alluring autonomy of women, as is apparent in
the ‘Mut’ah myths'. They are at the same time fearful of the
arbitrariness implied in it; just as they may be selected for a
treat. They may be let go unceremoniously, because temporary
marriages is a contract of lease and its objective is sexual
enjoyment only… Mut’ah women are seen not only as objects of
exchange (indeed, they are referred to as the objects of lease)
but also as temporary sexual partners for the day... There is thus
a close structural association with prostitutions... Consequently,
the customs of temporary marriages and its propriety involved
cultural questionings with conflicting feelings, and the women who
make use of it are also perceived with moral ambivalence...

Much to women's disappointments, the temporary marriages often
bestows them neither with the masculine protection nor with the
social prestige’s that they so earnestly seek" (Haeri). But
Khomeni also reduced the age of marriage and permitting girls as
young as nine to marry. Muhammad himself married his favorite wife
A'isha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, one of his closest associates
when she was six years old. Muhammad was 52 and A’isha was by that
time only 9 years old and still played with dolls, when they
sexually consummated their marriage! Muhammad followed an Arab
custom in marrying a child who had had her first menstrual cycles.
The legal marriage age for girls in Iran was only in 2002
increased from 9 to 13years. "Khomeini lowered the marriage age
for females from eighteen to thirteen, but permitted girls as
young as nine, even seven in some cases, to be married if a
physician signs a certificate agreeing to their sexual maturity.

'In his book Tahrir Al' Vassilih, Khomeini writes about the
legal requirements for having sex with girl children' explained a
woman lawyer who is concerned that child brides are dying since
this ruling was instituted… 'In villages where child marriage is
most common, doctors here often don't even see the girl,' she told
me. 'They just take the family's word that she is physically
mature enough to marry. Consequently, we have had very young girls
badly injured and when they have had what amounts to forced
intercourse. Infection sets in and they have died.' 'Only with
girls under seven did the Ayatollah say that sex was forbidden".

Khomeini has gone so far as saying

sex with infants is acceptable:

"A man can have sexual pleasure from a child as young as a
baby. However, he should not penetrate. If he penetrates and the
child is harmed then he should be responsible for her subsistence
all her life. This girl however would not count as one of his four
permanent wives. The man will not be eligible to marry the girl's
sister". The complete Persian text of this saying can be found in
"Ayatollah Khomeini in Tahrirolvasyleh, Fourth Edition, Darol Elm,
Qom".

Child marriages in Afghanistan


  1. Roshan Qasem will be joining the household of Said Mohammed
    55, his first wife, their three sons and their daughter, who is
    the same age as Roshan.

  2. Mohammed Agha of
    district central Logar province had

    slaughtered his 14-year-old wife.

  3. Nasrin was banned from
    meeting any one outside the four walls of her house. Revealing the
    ordeal of her teenaged daughter, the dejected mother said ‘Daad
    Mohammad (the accused) used to tie her (Nasrin's) hands and feet
    and beat her severely
    ’.

In contrast to the severe legal punishments for women with a
statement on men and Mut’ah:

"No one can deny that most, if not all married men have had
sexual relations, legitimate or illegitimate, with other women. Is
it wise then to forbid married men from having relations with
other women? Is such a law just and in accordance with human
nature? Of course not, such law has not been practical and will
not be so! A. A. Muhajir “Polygamy and Mut’ah” (Haeri).

This is consistent with Muhammad's approval of polygamy,
including marriage unto slaves. Islamic law requires a man to
provide each of his wives with a household of her own. Thus marital
polygamy was usually the privilege of the prosperous (Walther).
However, in addition to the four wives, Muslim men can also select
any number of slave concubines for themselves:

‘marry such women as seem good to you, two and three and four;
but if you fear that you will not do justice (between them), then
(marry) only one or what your right hands possess; this is more
proper, that you may not deviate from the right course (Surah
4.3).

The Quranic passages on marriages, according to Shia’ites, also
spell out the conditions for Mut’ah, in which 'as to whom you profit
by' means 'among them whom you have enjoyed':

‘And all married women except those whom your right hands
possess (this is) allah's ordinance to you, and lawful for you are
(all women) besides those, provided that you seek (them) with your
property, taking (them) in marriage not committing fornication.
Then as to those whom you profit by, give them their dowries as
appointed; and there is no blame on you about what you
mutually agree after what is appointed
; surely allah is
Knowing, Wise (Surah 4.24).

The parties to a marriage-contract are not the bride and groom,
but the groom and the bride's male relatives. Marriages can thus be
forced (Walther):

‘the parties to the contract are the bridegroom and the bride's
guardian... her closest male relative, usually her father or
brother or, if the need be, even the judge himself. Two free male
witnesses, or one male and two female witnesses, must be present
on this occasion. The Sunnah of the Prophet recommends that the
bride should not be married without her consent. However, silence
is sufficient an indication of this agreement in the case of a
virginal bride, since she is considered to be too shy or timid to
speak for herself. When the girl is a minor, her guardian can also
force her into marriage, but she has the right to annul this as
soon as she is of age. The Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali [schools of
Sunnah] even permit an adult woman to be forced by her guardian to
contract marriage.

An important part of the marriage contract is the fixing of the
dowry (haq-e-mahr or saddq), which is a form of 'bride price', not
an endowment for the bride's welfare from her family. However, the
haq-e-mahr was not a purchase price, but as compensation from the
bridegroom had to given to the parents of the bride for the loss
to the tribe of the sons that the woman would bear. The haq-e-mahr
was not paid when the girl married her cousin on her father's
side; that is, when she remained in the tribe. This is still true
among Bedouins of today... The saddq was the wedding gift which
the girl received. As early as the time of Muhammad, a distinction
was no longer made between these two terms (Walther).

Wiebke Walther notes: "In the context of a divorce, the Quran
says that they (women) have the same right as is exercised over
them, though the men have a rank above them
". In fact, husbands
are given free reign in matters of separation and divorce:

"You may put off whom you please of them, and you may take to
you whom you please, and in whom you desire of those whom you had
separated provisionally; no blame attaches to you; this is most
proper, so that their eyes may be cool and they may not grieve,
and that they should be pleased, all of them with what you give
them" (Surah 33.51).

Under the triple talaq salutation, a husband merely has to repeat
the oath of divorce three times for it to have immediate effect on
marriage. Walther further notes that the Islamic law permits every
man in a healthy mental state to repudiate his wife (talaq) without
having to give any valid reason for it, and without even consulting
a judge. There are only a limited number of ways in which a wife can
free herself from her husband. The ‘khula' or redemption was adopted
from the heathen pagan practices in pre-Islamic times, and it
consists in the wife's purchasing her freedom from her husband by
the payment of a certain sumfrequently
equivalent to the dowry. It is laid down in the Quran that, after
the divorce, the husband must provide for a wife, who is suckling a
child, until it is weaned; this can extend to a period of two years.
The mother has the right of custody for girls until they are of age
or until they marry and for boys until puberty or the age of seven
years. However, the father is the legal guardian of the children;
only when they are poor, he is obliged by law to maintain them. Thus
the mother usually returns to her family, which maintains her, with
the children she has to look after.

A Muslim woman can not marry a non-Muslim, but a Muslim man is
permitted to marry a Jewish or a Christian woman. After a divorce, a
woman must wait for three months before remarrying. Men, however,
are permitted to remarry immediately. (Surah 2:234) Muhammad
introduced the waiting period in order to determine whether the
woman was expecting a child, so that the paternity could be
established without any doubt. If the woman was pregnant, she could
only re-marry after the birth of the child.

"And the divorced women should keep themselves in waiting for
three courses; and it is not lawful for them that they should
conceal what Allah has created in their wombs, if they believe in
Allah and the last day; and their husbands have a better right to
take them back in the meanwhile if they wish for reconciliation;
and they have rights similar to those against them in a just
manner, and the men are a degree above them, and Allah is Mighty,
Wise" (Surah 2.228).

Walther also notes "Here, as in later traditions in which
women are defined as mothers, sisters, and daughters, their roles
are defined from a man's point of view; as women are seen in their
family relations and in their sociability with men
":

"Amongst His signs is that He hath created for you of your own
species spouses that ye may find rest in them, and hath set love
and compassion between you." (Surah 30.21)

However, this very apparently 'merciful' Surah is cited by
Qurtubi as a basis for a woman to have to submit to the sexual
demands of the husband on call:

"When a man calls his wife to his bed, and she refuses, the One
Who is in the heaven will be angry with her until he [her husband]
is pleased with her"  (Rafiqul-Haqq and Newton)

Such Quranic passages are reflected in hadiths, where sex on
demand is a holy duty:

"The prophet of Allah said: When a man calls his wife to
satisfy his desire, let her come to him though she is occupied at
the oven." (Rafiqul-Haqq and Newton).

Muhammad imposes a taboo on women as unclean during menstruation,
but ordains intercourse the rest of the time under commandment of
God, [as do the Jews]:

"And they ask you about menstruation. Say: It is a discomfort;
therefore keep aloof from the women during the menstrual discharge
and do not go near them until they have become clean; then when
they have cleansed themselves, go in to them as Allah has
commanded you; surely Allah loves those who turn much (to Him),
and He loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2.222).

Ever present is the role of the female as a sexual beast of
burdens, light, or heavy:

"He it is Who created you from a single being, and of the same
(kind) did He make his mate, that he might incline to her; so when
he covers her she bears a light burden, then moves about with it;
but when it grows heavy, they both call upon Allah, their Lord: If
Thou givest us a good one, we shall certainly be of the grateful
ones (Surah 7.189).

As in the Decalogue, where one is taught not to covet one's
neighbour's house, wife, servants, or cattle (a wife having
intermediate status between cattle and property), women are equated
to domesticated beasts:

Aisha: The things which annul the prayers were mentioned before
me. They said, "Prayer is annulled by a dog, a donkey and a woman
(if they pass in front of the praying people)." I said, "You have
made us (i.e. women) dogs. I saw the Prophet praying while I used
to lie in my bed between him and the Qiblah. Whenever I was in
need of something, I would slip away. For I disliked to face him."

To al-Ghazali, woman is here created as a mere plaything. She is
a recalcitrant domesticated animal, valued only in her fear of her
husband (Rafiqul-Haqq and Newton):

"In the company of women, looking at them, and playing with
them, the soul is refreshed, the heart is rested, and the man is
strengthened to the worship of God... this is why God said: 'That
he might rest in her.' (Surah 7:189)" (Essid ).

"If you relax the woman's bridle a tiny bit, she will take you
and bolt wildly. And if you lower her cheek-piece a hand span, she
will pull you an arm's length... Their deception is awesome and
their wickedness is contagious; bad character and feeble mind are
their predominant traits"...

"[A man's wife] fears him, while he fears her not, a kind word
from him satisfies her, where nothing of hers has importance in
his eyes, it is she who must tolerate the presence of concubines,
and it is she who worries when he is ill whereas even her death
would leave him indifferent."

The reference to women as domestic animals is reinforced in al-Tabari's
account of the prophet's last and most famous speech (Al-Tabari, Abu
Ja’far Muhammad b. Jarir. [The History of al-Tabari. Vol. IX, The
Last Years of the Prophet
, Translated and annotated by Ismail K.
Poonawala, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1990, P.
112-114]:

"Treat women well, for they are [like] domestic animals (‘awan)
with you and do not possess anything for themselves. You have
taken them only as a trust from God, and you have made the
enjoyment of their persons lawful by the word of God, so
understand and listen to my words, O people."

Despite the high price of dowry settlements to wives' families in
Saudi Arabia and the shunning of divorced women, more than twenty
percent of Saudi marriages end in divorce within a year... Marriages
suffer most from all the usual afflictions, infidelity,
incompatibility, house-hold violence, but the biggest problem is
polygamy by Muslim men... Many Saudi husbands constantly change
partners, a practice that causes constant heartaches (Wright L)….

I would like to end this article by just saying this ‘the
Muslim husband’s mindset has come to dominate their wives by their
prophet’s ideology which has a harsh manifesto that is invading
their women’s private space. Muslim women are a vulnerable group,
especially in areas where protests against restrictions on personal
freedoms are unwelcome with other women right out side Islam’...
!

Islam Watch - "angladesh: Woman whipped mercilessly in public after fatwa over paternity of child" by William Gomes

Rahima Akter, a 26-year-old destitute woman, is groaning with
pain at the Dhaka Medical College Hospital, after she was being
whipped mercilessly in public based on an Islamic fatwa over claim
of paternity of her child Ramzan in a remote village Noagon in
Daudkandi, Bangladesh.

Rahima’s Mother Rasheda Begum told Asia News that Rahima had
developed a relation with Abdul Karim of the same village, and gave
birth to the child; they moved from door to door for arbitration on
the claim of paternity of the child, but without any result.

Around 8 p.m. on May 22, a 6-member Fatwa committee, led Maulana
Abul Kashem started the arbitration in the local Noagon Ayesha
Sidikka Nurani Hafizia Madrasa (Islamic School), jam-packed with
around 200-400 peoples people; the arbitration continued until
midnight. Mr. Karim, the alleged father of the child, denied
paternity by touching the Koran in front of the committee.

Then Maulana Abul Kashem, who led the fatwa committee, then asked
to Rahima said to say truth by touching Koran, she did. But, the
Maulana called her as a liar. Rahima then demanded DNA testing of
Karim.

Ignoring the request, Maulana Kashem issued a fatwa that Rahima
should be whipped 100 times, according to Islamic law for
fornication, as she was a single mother. The fatwa committee, said
Rohima's mother, asked her father Abdul Matin to tie her hands, and
they whipped her in front of her father. The Mullas beat her father,
too.

"I was standing there as a very helpless mother in the midst of
Mullas and full of people," said Rahima’s mother, "wondering that
who will come to help us, no one came to help us, all stood by the
side of the Mullas."

Rahima lost her consciousness after 39 lashes, and her father
took her home. "After my daughter got back to sense, she could not
sleep at night," said Rahima’s Mother.

On  May 23 morning, they took her to Daudkandi Thana Health
Complex.

After a case filed with the police, Maulana Abul Kashem's
supporters threatening Rahima's family to withdraw the case.

Dr. Mohammed Sarfaraz Hossain Khan, who treated Rahima Akter at
Daudkandi Thana Health Complex, told Asia News that Rahima came to
the hospital in a very bad pain; she was not even able to seat, he
lower part of the body, specially the buttock, had very bad
swelling. "I was shocked at treating the brutality," said Dr. Khan.

Rahima was then sent to the One Stop Crisis Centre (OCC) of Dhaka
Medical College Hospital (DMCH) on May 26 for DNA testing.

The coordinator of OCC confirmed that Rahima Akter, her Father
Abdul Matin and son Ramzan were in OCC, and no outsider were allowed
to meet them for security reason.

Jahanara, Abdul Karim's Mother,  told Asia News, "Allah
Knows that Rahima is a liar and the Mullas treated her according to
Sariah."

"My son Abdul Karim is married and have three grown up sons, Emon
(8), Ekram (6), Mahi (2)," she added.

Hafez Hafizullah of the Noagon Ayesha Sidikka Nurani Hafizia
Madrasa told Asia News that, Rahima was whipped according to the
Islamic Sahria, and as a Muslim she should accept the ruling.

Barrister Shafiq Ahmed, Minister of Law, Justice and
Parliamentary Affairs, told Asia News that there no acceptability of
“Fatwa”; it is fully illegal in course of law; and on this issue of
Rahima Akter, a case has been filed with the police, and the
perpetrators will be brought under the law.

"Three out of the six accused were arrested upon a case filed by
Abdul Matin the father of the victim," Daudkandi police chief
Moshiur Rahman told Asia News.

The arrestees are Moulana Abul Kashem, 55, Abdul Karim, 35, and
Shah Alam, 50.

"The police are trying to catch the other accused in the case,"
Rahman said.

Ms. Khushi Kabir, Coordinator of Nijera Kori, a local human
rights organization helping the poor family with legal aid told Asia
news, "There is no specific law on the issue fatwa (religious edict)
and defining the paternity, the government should take proper
initiative to come out of the crisis immediately by introducing new
law."

She said that the case of Rahima is another sordid example of a
young woman being subjected to gross injustice by the village
headmen assuming the role of arbitrators.

Prominent Human rights activist and a barrister Ms. Sarah Hossain
said to Asia News, "The reason behind this brutal event are two
folded: social discrimination against woman, and the lack of
implementation of relevant laws to prevent violence against woman."

"For last 15 years, we are campaigning against "Fatwa”," she
said, adding, "10 years ago the High Court of Bangladesh has given
verdict against “Fatwa” and declared “Fatwa” illegal. But it’s a sad
thing that until now the verdict of the High Court has not fully
implemented."

"I demand an impartial investigation and financial remedy and
security of Rahima and her family," she said.

"I affirm my strong position against this brutality."

 

A Brief Illustrated Guide To Understanding Islam, Muslims, and the Quran

For
centuries, Muslims all over the world have obeyed this command from
the Koran, facing Mecca five times a day for prayer. But for a Muslim
who is thousands of miles from Mecca, finding the right direction to
pray—the qibla, or “sacred direction”—is not so easy.
It has even been a source of controversy. Some of the mosques in Cairo
reflect two different qibla values at 10 degrees from each other, with
the outside walls aligned to one and the inside walls to the other. In
North America, some Muslims pray to the northeast, in the direction of
the great-circle route (the shortest path along the planet’s
surface) to Mecca, whereas others pray to the southeast.

Medieval
Muslims were using sophisticated mathematics to solve this problem
centuries before the equivalent discoveries were made in Europe. At a
time when Europeans believed that the Earth was flat, Muslim
scientists knew how to correct for the Earth’s curvature. Two
recently discovered instruments have proved that Islamic
mathematicians were even further ahead of their time than anyone knew.
These Mecca-centered world maps, cast in brass, indicate the direction
and distance to Mecca from any point in the medieval Muslim world, and
they do so with a type of map projection that was unknown in the West
until the 20th century.

“I
had been working on the subject [of the qibla] for 20 years, and the
discovery of these maps took me by surprise,” says David King, a
historian of science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in
Frankfurt, Germany. For the last decade King has been working to
discover who made the maps and, more important, who designed them. All
the evidence suggests that they were fabricated near Isfahan, in
present-day Iran, during the Safavid dynasty (which began in 1502 and
ended in 1722). However, King believes that the grid that is the
maps’ most distinctive feature must have been discovered centuries
earlier.

The
first of the two maps surfaced in 1989, when it was auctioned at
Sotheby’s of London. An anonymous collector discovered the second
one at a Parisian antique dealership in 1995. The two instruments are
so similar that they may have come from the same workshop. They are
about 9 inches wide and originally came with three attachments: a
compass, a sundial, and a rotating pointer that indicates both the
direction and distance to Mecca. The base contains a curved grid of
latitudes and longitudes, with the latitudes represented by circles
and the longitudes by vertical lines; more than 100 holes are punched
into the bronze to indicate various locations. (Mecca is, of course,
at the center.) Because the instrument was not meant for navigation,
it looks like no map you have ever seen: There are no land forms, no
rivers, no oceans.

“It’s
not surprising that they had the data to enter onto the grid, and the
motivation [to find the qibla],” says Len Berggren, a historian of
mathematics at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver. “What is
surprising is that someone discovered the map projection to do it.”
Not only are the lines of latitude curved and the lines of longitude
unevenly spaced—both unprecedented innovations in the Islamic
world—but the spacing is precisely calibrated so that the distance
to Mecca on the pointer is the sine of angular distance to
Mecca in the real world. If the lines had been evenly spaced, the
instrument would not have worked.

According
to King, the artisans of Isfahan could never have come up with such a
grid themselves; they were accomplished astrolabe makers, but not
mathematicians. Therefore, they had to be copying an earlier model.

Where
did the original model come from? King has some intriguing
speculations. As early as the 9th century, Islamic astronomers had
devised a method for computing the qibla that happened to produce, as
an intermediate step, the sine of the distance to Mecca. The map
projections might have been discovered at the same time. Indeed,
King’s colleague Francois Charette has shown that the grids are, in
a sense, a translation of the equations into cartographic form.
Alternatively, a later scholar who was familiar with the trigonometric
method might have devised the map as an ingenious simplification. King
suspects Abu ‘l-Rayhan al-Biruni (973–1048), considered the
leading scientist of medieval Islam, who lived in Ghazna (now
Afghanistan) and wrote an influential and original treatise on the
qibla.

Inevitably,
less romantic possibilities have been suggested. The catalogue that
Sotheby’s printed when the first instrument went up for auction
states: “The projection is of western European inspiration … and
this unusual instrument is interesting as evidence of the assimilation
of European science and technology in Persia in the 18th century.”
King strongly disagrees with that interpretation, citing both physical
and historical evidence. Even if European mathematicians had worked on
the qibla-finding problem, he argues, they would not have stumbled on
a solution that was directly inspired by a 9th-century Islamic
formula. “The fact that the instrument uses the sine of the distance
is, to me, the most compelling argument” for its early Islamic
origin, King says. There is also no evidence that the European
scholars who were in Persia at the time brought with them anything
like a Mecca-centered world map. Even if they could have, they would
not have wanted to: They were in Persia to convert Muslims, not to
make it easier for them to practice their religion.

More
clues to the origin of these instruments may yet come to light. “So
many Arabic manuscripts lie not only unstudied but uncatalogued in the
libraries of the world,” Berggren says. They may contain
descriptions of similar qibla-finding world maps, which went
unrecognized before because historians didn’t know what they were
reading about. Says Berggren, “Not only do we know what to look for
now, but we know it’s worth looking.”—Dana Mackenzie

This
article is published by written permission from American Scientist,
Magazine of Sigma Xi, The Sceintific Research Society. Articles was
originally published in the Science Observer, May-June, 2001

 

A Brief Illustrated Guide To Understanding Islam, Muslims, and the Quran

 

The science of modern cosmology, observational
and theoretical, clearly indicates that, at one point in time, the whole
universe was nothing but a cloud of ‘smoke’ (i.e. an opaque highly dense and
hot gaseous composition).1 
This is one of the undisputed principles of standard modern cosmology. 
Scientists now can observe new stars forming out of the remnants of that ‘smoke’
(see figures 10 and 11).

 

 

Figure 10: A new star forming out of a
cloud of gas and dust (nebula), which is one of the remnants of the ‘smoke’
that was the origin of the whole universe.

A Brief Illustrated Guide To Understanding Islam, Muslims, and the Quran

 

God supported His last Prophet
Muhammad  with many
miracles and much evidence which proved that he is a true Prophet sent by
God.  Also, God supported His last revealed book, the Holy Quran, with many
miracles that prove that this Quran is the literal word of God, revealed by Him,
and that it was not authored by any human being. This chapter discusses some of
this evidence.

(1) The Scientific Miracles

in the Holy Quran

The
Quran is the literal word of God, which He revealed to His Prophet Muhammad 
through the Angel Gabriel.  It
was memorized by Muhammad ,
who then dictated it to his Companions.  They, in turn, memorized it, wrote
it down, and reviewed it with the Prophet Muhammad . 
Moreover, the Prophet Muhammad
reviewed the Quran with the Angel Gabriel once each year and twice in the last
year of his life.  From the time the Quran was revealed, until this day,
there has always been a huge number of Muslims who have memorized all of the
Quran, letter by letter.  Some of them have even been able to memorize all
of the Quran by the age of ten.  Not one letter of the Quran has been
changed over the centuries.

The
Quran, which was revealed fourteen centuries ago, mentioned facts only recently
discovered or proven by scientists.  This proves without doubt that the
Quran must be the literal word of God, revealed by Him to the Prophet Muhammad ,
and that the Quran was not authored by Muhammad
or by any other human being.  This also proves that Muhammad
is truly a prophet sent by God.  It is beyond reason that anyone fourteen
hundred years ago would have known these facts discovered or proven only
recently with advanced equipment and sophisticated scientific methods. 
Some examples follow.

 

Nabulsi Encyclopedia of Islamic Science

 

Praise be to Allah, the Lord of Creations, and Peace and
blessings be upon our prophet Muhammad, the faithful and the
honest.

 Oh, Allah, we know nothing but what You teach us. You are
the All- Knower, the Wise. Oh Allah, teach us what is good for us,
and benefit us from what You taught us, and increase our knowledge.
Show us the righteous things as righteous and help us to do them,
and show us the bad things as bad and help us to keep away from
them.

  O Allah our Lord, lead us out from the depths of darkness
and illusion, unto the lights of erudition and knowledge, and from the
muddy shallows of lusts unto the heavens of Your Vicinity.

 While to many the Prophet Muhammed may seem to be a powerful super hero not of this world, when he walked on this earth he was merely a human being who shared the same qualities you and I share today. While his mission was extraordinary and he was chosen by God to share His word and help us understand God’s ways, at one time he shared our humanness. It is in understanding this reality that perhaps we can better appreciate his true power and strength.

 When we consider the Prophet as an ordinary man with an extraordinary mission we can better appreciate the gifts he shared and his teachings. We can more easily identify with the

Prophet when we see him as a mere mortal, who experienced defeat and harm just as we do, and had the same needs and desires we have, as humans. When we consider Him in this context his extraordinary talents, wisdom and humble ways enable us to see the value in modeling ourselves after him as we go about our daily activities in the here and now.

We see in Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) a merciful and compassionate person who, whether witnessing pain or hope in others, responded with love and tenderness. He was an intelligent individual who responded positively to those around him while encouraging them to respect God and follow his ways. He exchanged correspondence with kings and emperors of the world, and with God’s guidance and direction, urged them to leave their arrogance behind and rule their people with justice.

 Yet, despite mingling with the mighty leaders of his time, he was also a modest man, who, it is said, responded graciously to the request of a barefoot Bedouin who once spoke to him with disrespect, "Muhammed be just and give me money. It’s not your money, nor your father’s." In response, the prophet smiled in the Bedouin’s face and ordered he be given the amount of money requested.

 He was a devout and religious man, whose happiest moments were experienced while praying and communicating with God. It is said that once, while praying at length with his companions, he heard a crying baby. The baby’s mother was praying behind the prophet. In response to the baby’s crying, the prophet mercifully ended the prayer instantly, enabling the mother to respond to the child’s needs.

 We see a man who recognized the power of forgiveness. We see this when he entered the town of Mecca with his huge army without a fight. The Meccans had previously tortured him and his companions, exiled him and brutally killed his dearest relatives. As he entered, the Meccans stood before him expecting him to take his revenge. Instead, he told them they were all forgiven and free from any grudge or revenge.

 We see in him a caring and humble individual. He once gathered wood to light a fire and prepared food for his companions. He refused to watch others work while he did nothing and

he told them God does not favour those who try to look distinguished among their companions.

 We see in him a kind and tender man with a merciful heart, who trembled with sorrow when witnessing a horse or a camel struggling with a heavy load on its back. It is said that he encouraged his followers to show mercy to all of God’s creatures and he told them that God says those who are merciful to God’s creatures shall receive God’s mercy:

"Have mercy on those who are on the planet earth and you shall have the mercy of He who is in heaven."

 As for His mercy, to support those in need, who borrowed money, he told the lenders that if they extended the settlement time, or cancelled the dues of the debtor, he would ask that

they be pardoned by God on Judgment Day.

 Once, to help his companions understand the depth of God’s mercy, he pointed to a mother tenderly kissing and holding her baby tightly. He asked his companions whether they thought the mother could ever throw her baby into the fire of hell. They confirmed, she could never do such a thing and the Prophet told them that God is more merciful with people than this mother with her baby.

 The prophet’s superiority qualified him to be above those around him, but he preferred to be among them, adopting a simple life among ordinary people, sharing everything with them.

He was a just man. He once said that the destruction of the entire universe would be easier on God than bloodshed without a right. He also said that the destruction of previous nations and civilizations was caused by an unjust system that freed thieves who were among the nobility and focused on capturing and punishing the weak thieves of the lower classes. "I swear by God that if my own daughter Fatima stole anything I would cut her hand myself," he told his followers.

 He was a humble man, who admitted that he was not infallible, and was subject to some faults of humanity all men share. He explained that he was human and though he was asked to judge among his people, he could make errors. He knew that it was possible some were more clever in presenting their case than others and he could make a mistake by giving one the rights of another. He urged that those who were in the wrong not take anything that was not their just right, even if he had mistakenly made judgment for their favor.

 He believed in the power of love. He urged people to love each other and said that love must prevail among all people. He once said, "I swear by God that you shall not enter paradise until you believe. And you shall not believe until you love each other." He said that one way to demonstrate love for one another is to exchange greetings and gifts.

He also encouraged people to respect each other. He cautioned that if three were sitting together, two of them were not to whisper words to each other, as this would cause sadness and curiosity to the third person.

 He spoke of the value of friendship and told that if a person abandoned his friend for more than a year it would be as if he had shed his blood. He promoted the virtue of forgiveness and said that the worst people were those who did not accept the apologies of their friend and did not forgive them when they made mistakes.

The Prophet believed one could not underestimate the value and importance of friendship and he claimed that supporting a friend in difficult times was better than dedicating an entire month for God’s worshipping inside the Prophet’s Mosque.

 The Prophet was a wise man who offered words to live by and through his actions demonstrated how to live. When asked who were God’s most beloved people, the Prophet said God’s most beloved people are those are most useful to God’s creatures. We are all God’s creatures and we must be useful to one another.

 The positive effects of love on a human’s health have been scientifically proven. The human body’s immune system is weakened by depression, grief, anxiety and nervousness while sentiments of love, hope, calmness and optimism support its health. It seems only natural that the body’s spirit is strengthened and unified by love and when we live in love and friendship we are following the Prophet’s way, which is good.

 In the Holy Quran (Poets chapter) God said that to avoid suffering and pain believe that there is only one God and that God is Allah. Belief in God strengthens you, while disbelief weakens you. The Prophet believed in God, his belief was so strong that he devoted his life to God - yet he was also an ordinary man. While his extraordinary commitment to God may seem to set him apart from us, it also offers us a route to follow, a life to model that can bring us closer to God and ensure the entire mankind happiness.

Islamic Studies

 

The study of Islam and Muslims spans a number of subject areas and approaches, looking at the religion of Islam and also at Muslims in particular, social and historical contexts. As such, this programme provides interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary training, within a number of different methodologies, e.g. history, political science, anthropology, sociology, geography, and area studies, as well as traditional areas in Islamic Studies.

The aim is to encourage students to gain an understanding of a broad range of issues relating to the Study of Islam and Muslims, looking at the subject in many different ways, and in many global contexts, spanning a variety of subject areas and methodologies.

Programme Aims

The course provides an innovative and distinctive programme of study on Islam and Muslims, taking an approach which is postorientalist, post-traditionalist, multicultural, and interdisciplinary. The programme includes courses on core texts and sources of Islam, along with examination of Muslim cultures, societies, and civilisations and the changes affecting the Muslim world in terms of politics, economics, society and particular global and local issues. The programme may be taken either as an end in itself or as preparation for postgraduate research.

Assessment

There are no exams. All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by:

  • A Critical Review (2,000 words)
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
  • A Seminar Presentation

Students who undertake an MLitt are required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

Further Study & Careers

This programme will be useful for those who want to go on to teach in the field. Others may use their expertise and qualifications to go on to further studies, or to work in areas such as: government services at local, national and international levels; diplomacy; consultancy and project work, developing cooperation in non-governmental and international organisations; the media; the voluntary sector; social and not-for-profit organisations.

The courses at the Al-Maktoum Institute are designed to equip our students with the skills and knowledge to face the challenges of the contemporary world.

This programme spans a number of subject areas, and looks at Islam and Muslims in different social and historical contexts.

Programme Elements

This programme is made up of six taught courses and a dissertation. Students who successfully complete the three courses of the Autumn Semester may exit with a PgC. Students who successfully complete all six courses may leave the programme with a PgD. Students wishing to attain the MLitt must also undertake the dissertation.

Core Sources & Approaches in the Study of Islam & Muslims

This course introduces students to approaches and critical scholarship in the core sources of the study of Islam and Muslims – particularly the Qur’an and Hadith. The course focuses on the history, context, structure, theology and interpretations of these texts, with a key goal of placing these issues within a scholarly framework. It also examines academic methodologies for the application of these texts, including tafsir (Qur’anic interpretations), the processes of authentication of hadith (isnad and matn), and the principles of jurisprudence (usul ul-fiqh).

Islam & the West: Multiculturalism, Globalisation & Muslims

This course introduces contemporary academic debates on the complex interactions between what are broadly labelled ‘Islam’ and ‘The West’. Adopting a mainly socio-scientific viewpoint, it emphasises the issues of multiculturalism and globalisation, which frame these transnational relations and networks. Students reflect on the history of encounters between Muslims and ‘The West’ (and Europe in particular), exploring concepts such as the ‘clash’/ ’dialogue’ of civilisations. This is related to sociological literature on globalisation and multiculturalism, with particular reference to examples of Muslim cultures and societies in contemporary contexts.

Optional Course 1

Choose one course, subject to availability, from:

  • Islam & Muslims in History & Society
  • Theoretical Framework of Bayt al-Maqdis
  • Multiculturalism in Theory & Practice

Optional Courses 2 & 3

Choose two courses, subject to availability, from:

  • Globalisation & Political Islam
  • Islam & Muslims & International Relations
  • Islamic Education: Theory & Practice
  • History of Bayt al-Maqdis 2: From the Late Crusades to the Contemporary Era
  • Women in Islam
  • Political Islam
  • Islam & Muslims in Multicultural Britain
  • Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh)
  • Editing Islamic Texts & Manuscripts
  • Qur’anic Arabic (for non-Arabic Speakers)

Postgraduate Research Methods

This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

 

Gender & Islam

 

This timely new programme aims to address the challenges arising from contemporary changes around the world, particularly in terms of the revival of Islamic movements in the last few decades. All these movements, either to conservative or progressive, Shi’ite or Sunni, have a central place for gender issues in their political and cultural ideologies, policies and discourses. By recognising and validating the diversity of gender issues in terms of different ideological perspectives and practices, this programme singles out itself from other gender studies programmes in the UK that mainly tend to focus on Western feminist theories and the development of feminist consciousness.

Programme Aims

This programme will promote an interdisciplinary study of gender and cross-cultural and comparative theoretical and methodological perspectives, and textual enquiry by placing Islam and Islamic frameworks at the centre of analysis. It aims to provide students with an opportunity to explore and research gender issues and gendered aspects of social and cultural life in relation to Islam and Muslims – majority regions of the world as well as European countries where Muslims have established strong communities and identities.   Students will be exposed to a range of conceptual, theoretical and methodological approaches to the feminist discourses and the questions of gender and Islam as well as gender in Islamic framework.  They will be familiarised with the epistemological and philosophical underpinnings of feminist methodologies and to provide a framework to study, research, and understand some debates and research topics within diverse Islamic cultural settings.  There will be analyse of gender and its intersections with other categories of identity, such as race, ethnicity, sexuality, class, disability, and religion. They will also analyse various social and cultural constructions of “masculinity” and “femininity”, the social processes, cultural representations, relations of power, and forms of knowledge that have generated a variety of feminist theories and perspectives.

As a new programme, the course will incite new discussions on different issues in association with Gender and Islam. The focus will be on theory and practice of gender relations in Muslim-majority countries as well as in countries such as European countries, where Muslims form large communities for whom Islam provides a guide of life. The programme will investigate the causes of women’s oppression in Muslim societies and the role of Islamic teachings and framework in the promotion of egalitarian gender relations.

Assessment

There are no exams.  All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

  • Critical review (2,000 words)
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
  • A Seminar Presentation

Students who undertake an MLitt will also be required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

Further Study & Careers

This programme will be useful for those who want to go on to teach in the field. Others may use their expertise and qualifications to go on to further studies, or to work in areas such as: government services at local, national and international levels; diplomacy; consultancy and project work, developing cooperation in non-governmental and international organisations; the media; the voluntary sector and NGOs.

Programme Elements

Feminist Thought & Ideologies

The course equips students to contribute to the understanding of gender issues. It allows students to explore the impact of gender aspects, gender difference, and gender constructions on behaviour, social structures, government policy, cultural representations and debate.

The course also examines the role of gender assumptions, biases, and hypotheses, historically and cross-culturally, and enables students to assess the impact of gender-related research on knowledge, public policy, customs and beliefs.

Gender & Islam

This course explores and examines sacred scriptures and codes of conduct, as well as fictional writing and film, to enable students to explore a wide range of social and religious traditions. It investigates key concepts such as: Others/Exotic; Mimicry; Hybridity; and Subaltern Subject in the context of gender theories and Muslim societies.

The course also covers debates between Western and Non-Western feminists, and considers questions of transnational identity politics. Examples are drawn from Islamic societies and from current debates about gender, sexuality and Islam, in Western countries.

Optional Courses 1 & 2

Students choose two courses from a list which will be made available at the start of the Autumn Semester.

Optional Course 3

Students choose one course from a list which will be made available at the start of the Spring Semester.

Postgraduate Research Methods: Feminist Methodologies

This course introduces both qualitative and quantitative research methods and approaches. Students will focus in particular on different methodological approaches from feministic perspectives and apply them to their own research.

 

Development, Islam & the Muslim World

 

This innovative programme aims to train students to undertake studies and research addressing socio-economic as well as politico-cultural changes in Muslim-majority as well as Muslim-minority countries/regions around the world taking into account moral and religious values.

Programme Aims

The programme will examine the core issues of development studies, particularly socio-economic changes, global poverty, inequalities and relevant issues in developing countries with particular reference to the Muslim world. For Muslims, Islam is an essential part of daily life, which has far-reaching impact in social and political aspects of societies.

The programme will be taught from multi- and inter-disciplinary perspectives, particularly from historical, sociological, anthropological, economic, and political perspectives in relation to various understandings of modernity and development in Islamic tradition as well as Islamic societies. Islam’s rich past has demonstrated a significant capacity for social and economic development, the flourishing and transmission of knowledge between Islamic world and other civilisations, and tolerance and acceptance of other religions, cultures and peoples. Many developing countries with large Muslim communities have large natural resources and considerable potential for growth and development, yet many are poverty stricken. Islam as the second largest religion after Christianity is the most influential religion in the political and social life of many Muslim-majority countries. It plays an important factor in influencing social, political and economic policies.

Students will be provided with a framework to study, research, and understand some of these and many other questions through studying this particular course.   Students will have the opportunity to study the complexity of modern Muslim societies and immense potentials for their socio-economic developments.   They will undertake detailed studies and analysis, which will contribute to global peace and prosperity. The focus  will be on theory and practice of development and modernisation within Muslim-majority countries as well as in countries such as European countries, where Muslims form large communities, but remain in the margins of society. There will be opportunity to investigate the causes of such marginalisation and how using Islamic teachings and framework they can overcome some of their problems both in Muslim world and where they form considerable large communities.

Assessment

There are no exams. All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

  • A Critical Review (2,000 words)
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
  • A Seminar Presentation

Students who undertake an MSc will also be required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

Further Study & Careers

This programme will be useful for those who want to go on to teach in the field. Others may go on to use their expertise and qualifications to go on to further studies, or to work in areas such as: government services at local, national and international levels; diplomacy; consultancy and project work, developing co-operation in non-governmental and international organisations; the media, the voluntary sector and NGOs.

Programme Elements

Politics of Development

This course examines the different historical, political and sociological approaches to development that have been adopted since the 19th Century. Using case studies from around the world, the course explores the main challenges facing development today, and analyses new trends and opportunities. The attempt to eliminate global poverty and the obstacles that hinder this will also be discussed.

Human Rights: An Introduction

This course provides students with the tools to discuss and evaluate the links between human rights and international development. It asks the question: ‘What is the relationship between rights and culture?’, and looks at concepts such as ‘Good Governance’ and ‘Accountability’. The course provides a history and overview of the UN approach to development, and examines its implications, and the challenges and opportunities it faces, with particular reference to Muslim contexts.

Development Management

This course aims to equip students with the skills and tools required to manage development projects. It examines practical and theoretical approaches to development, and uses case studies to provoke discussion about the risks involved in development work, and about ways that they can be identified and reduced.

Development & Islam

This course explores the problems faced by development projects in Islamic communities, and examines how Islamcan provide a framework to meet challenges such as human law development, poverty, and migration. The course also relates the contemporary challenges of development to colonialism, post-colonialism, capitalism and globalisation in Muslim-majority countries.

Optional Course 1

Students choose one course from a list which will be made available at the start of the Autumn Semester.

Postgraduate Research Methods

This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

 

Practical Ethics & Islam

 

This is a ground-breaking and pioneering programme that explores the relationship between Islam and the fields of medical ethics, the environment and the law.  In recent years, increasing globalisation has raised many questions, dilemmas and challenges in a variety of social arenas around the world.

These questions are often associated with diversity, multiculturalism and the significance of religious identity, and many relate to ethical dilemmas surrounding new medical developments such as research with human subjects, genetics, abortion, organ transplantation, drugs, cosmetic surgery, transsexualism, death and dying, reproduction, stem cell research and cloning.

There are also serious discussions about the challenges of sustainability and the environment.  This programme examines these issues in the context of Islamic theoretical perspectives, and also explores current policy and practice in different Muslim countries.

Programme Aims

The programme is taught from multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary perspectives and focusses on philosophical and sociological viewpoints arising from various understandings of Islamic tradition.  It is designed to address some of the key questions facing Islam and the wider world today such as: ‘How are ‘ethics’ viewed in different Muslim countries?’; ‘How should Islamic thought respond to the latest medical developments?’; ‘How do ‘Islamic’ values relate to ‘universal norms’ such as the Helsinki Convention?’; ‘Can ‘Islam’ provide a theoretical framework to respond to contemporary environmental challenges?’

Assessment

There are no exams. All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

  • A Critical Review (2,000 words).
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words).
  • A Seminar Presentation.

Students who undertake an MSc will also be required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

Further Study & Careers

This unique programme provides an opportunity for anyone aiming to teach or research in this new field. Opportunities exist for specialists in practical ethics in government agencies, NGOs, the voluntary sector, and in social and not-for-profit organisations, in areas such as medicine, law and the environment.

Programme Elements

Ethics & Practical Ethics

The course examines social, classical and philosophical foundations underpinning modern conceptions of ethics and explores major contemporary ways of ethical thinking: consequentialism, non-consequentialism, values, the separateness-of-persons objection, the ‘badness’ or ‘goodness’ of things, e.g. death, what matters and what does not matter. Exploring the relationship between ethics and religion will be given a special attention. The other content areas are: role of ethics in multicultural/ multi-faith social policies, social settings as well as social cohesion and social change.

Environmental Ethics and Islam

The course introduces the concept of ‘environmental ethics’ through critically examining different associated perceptions as well as philosophical and sociological approaches in association with Islam. The course explores the main philosophical and contemporary notions of environmental thinking in relation to Islam and Muslims, such as nature and domination, the moral status of animals and their equal considerations, species and extinction, ethics of respect for nature, ecology and green theory, values, and what we owe future generations. Special consideration will be given to the possibility of understanding and construction of theoretical ‘Islam’ in a way it could tackle such challenges in the world. It is also important to relate the contemporary challenges of environment with globalisation,  capitalism and consumer ethics, particularly in the Muslim contexts of the Middle East.

Optional Course 1

This is chosen from a list each semester.

Medical Ethics & Islam

The course introduces the concept of medical ethics in association with Islam through critically examining different perceptions and academic approaches developed to define the subject. The course reflects main traditional and contemporary Muslim ethical schools of thought in addressing various medical issues. Special emphasis will be given to the significance of conducting empirical research about the theological definitions of medical concepts and their relations with the policy and practice of ethics in various health settings in Muslim world and across the Muslim collectivities in the ‘west’. This will address issues such as research with human subjects, genetics, abortion, organ transplantation, drugs, cosmetic surgery, transsexualism, death and dying, reproduction, stem cell research or therapy,  and cloning. For doing so, interdisciplinary methodological approaches of philosophy and sociology will be highlighted.

Legal Ethics & Islam

The course introduces the concept of legal ethics in association with Islam through critically examining  different perceptions and academic approaches developed to define the subject. The course explores the main contemporary schools of thought in the fields of jurisprudence in parallel with legal thoughts in Islamic tradition. Considerations will be paid to the main sociological and philosophical views of jurisprudence such as: classical English positivism, Dworkin’s interpretivism, critical legal studies, and the meanings of ‘law’ and ‘jurisprudence’. However, in addition to the sociological perspectives, such as Weber’s discussion of relationships between capitalism and law, Habermas’ theory of the centrality of law and Bourdieu’s notion of habitus, special attention will be given to the natural law as well as post- modernism in parallel with realism. Moreover, the significance of conducting both library-based and empirical research about the theological and philosophical foundations that inform medical and environmental policies and laws in Muslim countries will be highlighted. Also, attention will be given to the policies and laws that shape and affect Islamic ethics and practice of medicine and/or environment within the ‘western’ context.

Postgraduate Research Methods

This course addresses various methods in the humanitites and social sciences (e.g. analytical, compartive, historical and social) it introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods.  Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, and anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines.  Students will also reflect on the different methodologies and select appropriate approaches for their own research.

 

Islamic Ethics

This innovative and unique new programme is designed to develop students in the key concepts of the Islamic ethical framework. The programme is taught from a multidisciplinary perspective, and introduces the main sources and methodologies for understanding and exploring ethical issues in Islam.

Ethics (akhlaq) has always been a fundamental element of Islamic thought, and it plays a central part of both Muslim jurisprudence (fiqh) and the Islamic theology (‘aqidah). This programme looks at the importance of ethics in the Islamic core sources of Qur’an and Hadith; at how this was conceptualised by early and classical Muslim scholars; and critically examines modern debates about its significance. The programme also examines the engagements and encounters between Muslim and Western scholars regarding theology and philosophy in general, but particularly in the domain of ethics and ethical thinking.

Programme Aims

Students taking this programme will be expected to develop a broad understandingof the methodologies of Qur’anic exegesis (tafseer) and Qur’anic legal approaches, particularly in relation to ethical issues. These concepts will also be explored within wider contemporary studies of ethics and morality, including the study of ethics from other religious perspectives. The programme also gives students the opportunity to explore the key theological issues of Islamic ethics within the contexts of the main areas of contemporary practical ethics, including medicine, the law, and the environment.

Assessment

There are no exams. All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

  • A Critical Review (2,000 words).
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words).
  • A Seminar Presentation.

Students who undertake an MLitt will also be required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

Further Study & Careers

Students taking this programme may use it either as a base for further research in the area of ethics, or otherwise as an exploration of applied areas with a high degree of practical and contemporary relevance.

Programme Elements

Ethics & Practical Ethics

This course examines the social, classical and philosophical basis of modern conceptions of ethics, and explores contemporary methods of ethical thinking such as ‘badness’ and ‘goodness’, consequentialism, non-consequentialism, values, the separateness-of-persons objection, and what matters and what does not matter.

The relationship between ethics and religion is a major focus of the course. Other areas of study include: the role of ethics in multicultural/multifaith social policies, social settings, social cohesion and social change.

Islamic Ethics: Theory & Issues

This course introduces the concepts, theories and definitions of ethics in Islam, and examines the approaches to ethical issues in Islamic core sources. It investigates the links between ethics and other Islamic disciplines; the methods used by scholars to examine ethics within an Islamic framework; and the importance of ethics in Muslim thought.

Approaches to Ethics in Islam

This course examines different philosophical, mystical and theological trends in the framework of Islamic ethics. It focuses on the writings of classical Muslim scholars and the ideas they put forward, with particular emphasis on the schools of Ash’arites and Mu’tazilites.

Optional Course 1

Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

  • Environmental Ethics & Islam
  • Introduction to Islamic Law
  • Principles of Jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh) and Legal Maxims (al-Qawa’id al-Fiqhiyyah)

Optional Course 2

Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

  • Medical Ethics & Islam
  • Legal Ethics & Islam
  • Islamic Family Law & Contemporary Issues
  • Islamic Criminal Law & Contemporary Issues

Postgraduate Research Methods

This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

 

Islamic Law

 

This innovative new programme provides an opportunity for in-depth engagement with the principles and practice of Islamic law.  At the core of Islam, Islamic law governs many aspects of life, from family relationships to business transactions, criminal law, human rights, government and the laws of war.  It faces enormous challenges as it attempts to meet the needs of Muslims living in a changing world.

In recent years, many Islamic countries have begun the process of bringing all areas of their legal systems into compliance with the Shari’ah.  At the same time, Muslim populations in western countries are increasingly trying to find ways to comply with the laws of their faith within the law of their land.

Against this backdrop, there is a need for both Muslims and non-Muslims working in fields such as banking and finance, family law, social services, human rights, and education to have an understanding of the principle of Islamic Law, to allow them to plan effectively, addressing customer and client needs, dealing with issues that arise in the course of thier work.

Programme Aims

Students will focus on the key sources and legal approaches within Islam.  Relating the principles of jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh) and the legal maxims and intentions (al-Qawa’id al-Fiqhiyyah) to the diverse applications of law, in the context of family, criminal and financial issues.

Assessment

There are no exams.  All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

  • Critical review (2,000 words)
  • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
  • A Seminar Presentation

Students who undertake an MLitt will also be required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

    Further Study & Careers

    This programme is designed to be taken by legal practitioners, those with a general interest in the law, and also those with a background in Islamic studies wishing to specialise further. It does not, however lead to a recognised ‘legal’ qualification in Islamic law.

    Programme Elements

    Introduction to Islamic Law

    This course provides an overview of the development of Islamic law, clarifies terms used by Muslim jurists and examines the relationship between Shari’ah and Fiqh and the divinity of Islamic law. It also investigates different schools of Islamic jurisprudence, using case studies from around the world.

    Principles of Jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh) and Legal Maxims (al-Qawa’id al-Fiqhiyyah)

    This course provides students with the means to understand and extrapolate rulings from Islamic texts through examination of the thoughts of Muslim jurists. It explores the approaches of different schools of Islamic jurisprudence, and provides students with an understanding of some of the controversial issues surrounding Islamic law today.

    Optional Course 1

    Students choose one course from:

    • Islamic Family Law & Contemporary Issues
    • Islamic Criminal Law & Contemporary Issues

    Optional Course 2

    Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

    • Human Rights: An Introduction
    • Core Sources & Approaches in the Study of Islam & Muslims
    • Principles of Islamic Banking & Finance
    • Islamic Ethics: Theory & Issues

    Optional Course 3

    Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

    • Islamic Family Law
    • Islamic Criminal Law
    • Islamic Legal Issues in the UK
    • The Marriage Contract in Islam: Classical & Modern Perspectives
    • Approaches to Ethics in Islam: Differences & Commonalities
    • Medical Ethics & Islam
    • Legal Ethics & Islam

    Postgraduate Research Methods

    This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

     

    Islamic Banking & Finance*

     

    This innovative new programme provides an introduction to the theory and practice of Islamic Banking and Finance, which is one of the fastest-growing areas of the commercial sector, with new Islamic banks starting up every year.  There are an estimated 270 Islamic banks worldwide, with assets of at least $265 billion.  The recent global financial crisis and changes in the international banking system means that Islamic banking and finance has taken on an even greater prominence; particularly in areas such as the London markets, the Gulf states, and Malaysia.  Not only offering opportunities for the implementation of key Islamic religious values within a global economic context, but also the various models of Islamic finance share the strength of emphasising ethics based financial transactions.

    Programme Aims

    Students will be introduced to the concepts of Islamic finance and banking, relating them to the Islamic core sources of the Qur’an and the Hadith; and applying these to specific case studies of Islamic banking in the contemporary world.

    Students are required to explore issues and approaches in general finance and accountancy and gain an understanding of international non-Islamic banking systems.  There is an introduction of the issues of business in the Muslim world, including business ethics within an Islamic framework, and the issues of Muslims human resources and managment.  Drawing on the expertise of the Institute, the course combines an in-depth understanding of the key concepts of Islamic finance, with an appreciation of the practicalities of applying them in a real-world context.

    Assessment

    There are no exams.  All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by a combination of:

    • Critical Review (2,000 words)
    • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
    • A Seminar Presentation

    Students who undertake an MLitt are required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

    Further Study and Careers

    This programme provides a key qualification for those who are already involved personally or professionally in this wide ranging area, and for those who intend to enter a career in the sector of Islamic finance.  It can also be used a preparatory qualification for developing further research in the field.

    Programme Elements

    Principles of Islamic Banking & Finance

    This course provides an introduction to Islamic economics, in particular Islamic finance and banking. It examines the relationship between Islamic core sources (Qur’an and Hadith), ethical and financial issues, and practical financial transactions.

    Key concepts of financial transactions are also studied, including: murabaha, mudaraba, musharaka, ijara, takaful, salam and istisna’a. The course also touches on the history of Islamic finance and banking since the 1960s.

    Introduction to Finance, Accountancy & Banking

    This course focuses on the key elements of non-Islamic/’conventional’ banking and finance systems, to provide students with an understanding of the international context in which Islamic banking operates.

    The course examines the structures of contemporary international banking and finance and systems, and the principles of economic analysis (at micro and macro levels). It outlines the basic elements of accounting and financial reporting, and introduces key aspects of financial analysis.

    Islamic Banking Models

    This course provides an overview of the recent international history of Islamic banking, with a particular focus on the past 50 years. The course explores different models of Islamic banking and finance and the different ways they are implemented around the world. It uses examples and case studies from Islamic banks, and from providers of Islamic finance ‘windows’ in conventional banks.

    Optional Course 1

    Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

    • Core Sources & Approaches in the Study of Islam & Muslims
    • Islam and the West: Multiculturalism, Globalisation & Muslims
    • Multiculturalism in Theory & Practice

    Optional Course 2

    Students choose one course (subject to availability) from:

    • Business in the Muslim World
    • Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence

    Postgraduate Research Methods

    This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

    Dissertation

    The dissertation is an independent piece of work of 15-18,000 words in length. The topic to be studied is selected by the student in consultation with a member of academic staff, under whose supervision they develop and write the dissertation.

    Contact pgadmin@almi.abdn.ac.uk or click here to apply

    *this programme is subject to validation

    Bayt al-Maqdis & Jerusalem Studies

    Bayt al-Maqdis and Jerusalem Studies is an intellectually exciting new field of inquiry, which seeks to understand the region of Bayt al-Maqdis from interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary perspectives. It explores the historical and theological status of the region within Islamic tradition, and examines the roles the region has played in particular historical and social contexts. The course examines social, religious, historical, geographical and political perspectives on Bayt al-Maqdis, with in-depth studies and critical analyses.

    Programme Aims

    This is a unique programme that provides students with a theoretical grounding in the new field of enquiry in Bayt al-Maqdis Studies. It engages students with the contemporary debates on the uniqueness of the Bayt al-Maqdis region and its role as a model for inclusiveness and multiculturalism. The programme defines the new terminology of Bayt al-Maqdis. It explores how modern Bayt al-Maqdis is shaped partly by dialogue with its own past, and partly by its response to external influences in the region. It also examines how contemporary Muslims seek to relate their heritage in Bayt al-Maqdis from the past to the radical situation of today. The programme may be taken either as an end in itself or as preparation for postgraduate research.

    Assessment

    There are no exams. All assessment is by coursework, with most subjects assessed by:

    • A Critical Review (2,000 words)
    • An Essay (3-4,000 words)
    • A Seminar Presentation

    Students who undertake an MLitt are required to complete a research dissertation of 15-18,000 words.

    Further Study & Careers

    This programme will be useful for those who want to go on to teach in the field. Others may use their expertise and qualifications to go on to further studies, or to work in areas such as: government services at local, national and international levels; diplomacy; consultancy and project work, developing cooperation in non-governmental and international organisations; the media; the voluntary sector; social and not-for-profit organisations. The courses at the Al-Maktoum Institute are designed to equip our students with the skills and the knowledge to face the challenges of the contemporary world.

    This is a unique programme that provides students with a theoretical grounding in the new field of enquiry.

    Programme Elements

    This programme is made up of six taught courses and a dissertation. Students who successfully complete the three courses of the Autumn Semester may exit with a PgC. Students who successfully complete all six courses may leave the programme with a PgD. Students wishing to attain the MLitt must also undertake the dissertation.

    The Theoretical Framework of Bayt al-Maqdis.

    This course examines the theoretical and conceptual framework within which Muslims approach the region of Bayt al-Maqdis, addressing all the key social, religious, historical, geographical, and political aspects. The course focuses on a number of key questions: What are the reasons for Muslims having close links and concern with Bayt al-Maqdis? What is the significance of Bayt al-Maqdis to Islam and Muslims? Does Bayt al-Maqdis have any special status compared with any other region? Attention is paid to the vision of Bayt al-Maqdis, its boundaries, and the development of al-Aqsa Mosque.

    History of Bayt al-Maqdis I: From ‘Umar to Salah al-Din

    This course focuses on the first phase of the physical manifestation of the theoretical conceptual framework of Bayt al-Maqdis, from the time of ‘Umar to Salah al-Din. It discusses the historical developments and perspectives on Bayt al-Maqdis, with in-depth studies on particular aspects, and examines how Muslims ruled that region during that early period. Particular attention is paid to the first and second Muslim conquests of the region, the reconstruction of Al-Aqsa Mosque, the first brief interruption, and the transformation of Bayt al-Maqdis (1099-1187).

    Optional Course 1

    Choose one course, subject to availability, from:

    • Islam & Muslims in History & Society
    • Core Sources & Approaches in the Study of Islam & Muslims
    • Islam & The West: Multiculturalism, Globalisation & Muslims
    • Educational Studies: An Introduction
    • Multiculturalism in Theory & Practice

    History of Bayt al-Maqdis 2: From the Late Crusades to the Contemporary Era

    This course examines the second phase of the physical manifestation of the theoretical and conceptual framework of Bayt al-Maqdis. As in History of Bayt al-Maqdis I, it discusses historical and political developments and perspectives in the region, and offers in-depth studies on particular aspects, however, this course examines Muslim rule in the region during the period from the late Crusades to the contemporary era, and covers the key political and demographic issues involved. Particular attention is paid to specific subjects at the socio-political, demographical, legal and academic levels in the late contemporary period.

    Optional Course 2

    Choose one course, subject to availability, from:

    • Globalisation & Political Islam
    • Islam & Muslims & International Relations
    • Islamic Education: Theory & Practice
    • Women in Islam
    • Political Islam
    • Islam & Muslims in Multicultural Britain
    • Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Usul al-Fiqh)
    • Editing Islamic Texts & Manuscripts
    • Qur’anic Arabic (for non-Arabic Speakers)

    Postgraduate Research Methods

    This course addresses various research methods in the humanities and social sciences (e.g. analytical, comparative, historical and social) and introduces an in-depth critical analysis of contemporary research methods. Students engage with qualitative and quantitative methodologies in historical, textual, anthropological (ethnographic) and social scientific disciplines. They are also expected to reflect on different methodologies and select appropriate methodological approaches for their own research.

    Dissertation

    The dissertation is an independent piece of work of 15-18,000 words in length. The topic to be studied is selected by the student in consultation with a member of academic staff, under whose supervision they develop and write the dissertation.